Blog post: 4th December 2019
Updated on 23rd April 2021
Updated again on 27th February and 1st March 2025
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Counselling and psychotherapy theories (1):
Psychodynamic theory – (Sigmund Freud and the post-Freudians)
By Jim Byrne, Doctor of Counselling
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Introduction
Most counsellors have their basic training in a single system of theory and practice – (a single ‘school of thought) – perhaps augmented by a brief look at one ‘alternative’ system, for comparison purposes. This is an impoverished approach to counselling theory and practice, which has been pioneered by the universities, and the professional bodies that accredit counsellors and therapists. It is driven by the need for ‘neatness’, whereas the reality of the human mind, human suffering, and psychological processes is anything but neat.
I was fortunate to train in more than 13 different systems of counselling and therapy, and I have mixed and matched elements of them all for years, eventually resulting in a unique system of my own.
The psychoanalytic approach
The first system that I experienced, at the age of 22 years, was psychoanalysis. I had been through a very stressful period of social exclusion, and needed help to sort myself out. I saw a psychoanalyst weekly for three months; combined with other systems, such as art therapy, music therapy, group therapy, relaxation therapy; and some others.
Because of my immaturity at the time, I did not benefit greatly from psychoanalysis (in so far as I can consciously recall!)
Years later I reviewed the psychoanalytic literature and realized that most of the information I needed at the time was there, contained in Freudian theory, if only my analyst had been able to communicate it to me.
I had come from a family which was economically and culturally deprived. I (like all humans) was born as an ‘it’ (or ‘thing’), which was wired up with two basic instincts: the life or constructive instinct and the death or destructive urge. My mother (who was the first element of my ‘super-ego’, or Over-I [or Inner Policewoman!]) was the most important influence on the way my mind (or ‘ego’ [or ‘self’]) was shaped; and she was far from being ‘good enough’ as a caring mother. So I developed an insecure attachment style. (This latter point – about my attachment style – does not come from Freud or the Freudians, or even the neo-Freudians. It comes from Dr John Bowlby, who was castigated for deviationism, and ostracized by the British Object Relations School of psychoanalysts, which was the neo-/post-Freudian tradition that took root after the Second World War. Bowlby believed that the child’s actual experience shaped him or her; while the Freudians of every stripe believed the child was upset by his/her interpretations (or phantasies) of what his/her parents did: [and this belief was carried on my Albert Ellis and Rational Therapy! Hi ho!]). Of course, more recently, starting in 1994, the psychodynamic approach has begun to incorporate Attachment theory into it’s therapy, under the influence of Dr Allan Schore (1994), who spent ten years trying to integrate neuroscience, developmental psychology, Attachment theory and psychoanalysis (plus several other disciplines) into a comprehensive therapy system – because the psychodynamic approach to psychotherapy had fallen out of favour, post-CBT, because it was seen as being unscientific. Allan Schore and others have certainly put psychoanalysis back on the map! (At a time when people are beginning to see through the pseudo-science of CBT/REBT). (See further description/ explanation here: https://ecent-institute.org)
Today I was musing about this development – about which I have a lot of positive feelings/ thoughts/ perceptions, and it occurred to me that Allan Schore’s [and Daniel Siegel’s) agenda may well have been simply this:
What do we need to do to outdo CBT, and to restore faith in psychoanalysis?
The obvious answers, which they both seem to have alighted upon, was to incorporate a couple of systems of verified theory into psychoanalysis, and thus to save psychoanalysis from the dustbins of history. The systems that were ‘selected’ [or which fitted the bill] were neuroscience and Attachment theory.
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The Transformation of Psychoanalysis by Dr. Allan Schore’s Affect Regulation Theory
Revolutionizing the Understanding of Emotions and Development
The field of psychoanalysis has undergone significant transformation due to the groundbreaking work of Dr. Allan Schore, particularly through his development of Affect Regulation Theory. Schore’s theory has provided profound insights into the role of emotions in human development, mental health, and therapeutic practices.
Introduction to Affect Regulation Theory
Dr. Allan Schore, a prominent figure in the field of Neuropsychoanalytic, introduced Affect Regulation Theory as a framework to understand how emotions are regulated within the brain. His work emphasizes the importance of early emotional experiences and their impact on brain development, personality, and behaviour. Schore’s integration of neuroscience and psychoanalysis has bridged a critical gap, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of the human psyche.
The Foundations of Affect Regulation Theory
Affect Regulation Theory posits that the regulation of emotions is a fundamental aspect of psychological development. Schore’s research focuses on the interactions between caregivers and infants, highlighting how these early relationships shape the brain’s emotional regulatory systems. Through affective communication, caregivers help infants learn to manage their emotional states, which in turn influences their capacity for self-regulation throughout life.
Neuroscientific Contributions
One of the key contributions of Schore’s work is the integration of neuroscience into psychoanalytic theory. By utilizing advances in brain imaging and neurobiology, Schore has demonstrated how the right hemisphere of the brain, which is dominant in processing emotions, is crucial for affect regulation. His research shows that disruptions in early attachment relationships can lead to dysregulation of these neural systems, contributing to various psychological disorders.
Impact on Psychoanalytic Practice
Schore’s Affect Regulation Theory has significantly influenced psychoanalytic practice by shifting the focus towards the importance of early relational experiences and their neurobiological underpinnings. This shift has led to several key changes in therapeutic approaches:
Emphasis on Attachment and Relational Dynamics
Therapists now place greater emphasis on understanding patients’ early attachment experiences and how these have shaped their emotional regulatory systems. By exploring these dynamics, therapists can help patients develop healthier ways of managing their emotions and relationships.
Integration of Neuroscientific Insights
Schore’s work has encouraged psychoanalysts to incorporate neuroscientific findings into their practice. This integration provides a deeper understanding of the biological basis of emotional regulation and its impact on mental health, leading to more effective therapeutic interventions.
Focus on Affect Regulation in Therapy
Therapeutic approaches have increasingly focused on helping patients improve their affect regulation abilities. Techniques such as mindfulness, self-soothing strategies, and emotion-focused interventions are now commonly used to enhance patients’ capacity to manage their emotions.
Broader Implications for Mental Health
Beyond psychoanalysis, Schore’s Affect Regulation Theory has had broader implications for the understanding and treatment of mental health disorders. His work has influenced various disciplines, including developmental psychology, psychiatry, and social work.
Understanding Developmental Trajectories
Schore’s theory has provided valuable insights into the developmental trajectories of individuals with emotional dysregulation. By recognizing the long-term impact of early relational experiences, mental health professionals can better identify risk factors and implement preventive measures.
Informing Treatment of Psychological Disorders
Affect Regulation Theory has informed the treatment of a wide range of psychological disorders, including anxiety, depression, and personality disorders. By addressing the underlying issues related to affect regulation, therapists can develop more targeted and effective treatment plans.
Conclusion
Dr. Allan Schore’s Affect Regulation Theory has revolutionized psychoanalysis by highlighting the critical role of early emotional experiences and their neurobiological foundations. His work has led to significant changes in therapeutic practices, emphasizing the importance of attachment, relational dynamics, and affect regulation. The integration of neuroscience into psychoanalytic theory has provided a more comprehensive understanding of the human psyche, ultimately improving mental health outcomes for countless individuals. The transformative impact of Schore’s work continues to shape the future of psychoanalysis and mental health treatment, offering new pathways for understanding and healing the complexities of the human mind.
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Postscript: But Schore overlooked many aspects of “the body”!
But in the process, Schore and Siegal, both missed the opportunity to go back to square one, like Bessel van der Kolk, and to ‘follow the body’ through the early years of child development – to discover that ‘the body keeps the score’, and thus that psychoanalysis is not the overall ‘Russian doll’ inside of which others systems should be subsumed. Rather, psychoanalysis [of some revised sort] should be subsumed inside of a system which takes the social-emotional-body of the counselling/ therapy client as the super-ordinate Russian doll of counselling and psychotherapy!
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The Influence of Dr. Bessel van der Kolk on Psychodynamic Therapy
Transforming Our Understanding of Trauma and Healing
Dr. Bessel van der Kolk, a renowned psychiatrist and author of the seminal book “The Body Keeps the Score,” has significantly influenced the field of psychodynamic therapy through his groundbreaking work on trauma and its effects on the human body and mind. His research and clinical insights have not only deepened our understanding of trauma but also transformed therapeutic approaches, underscoring the importance of integrating body and mind in the healing process.
Understanding Trauma Through a New Lens
Dr. van der Kolk’s work has profoundly shifted the perception of trauma within psychodynamic therapy. Traditionally, psychodynamic therapy emphasized the exploration of unconscious processes, early experiences, and interpersonal relationships to understand and address psychological issues. However, Dr. van der Kolk’s research highlighted the need to consider the physiological and neurological impacts of trauma, thus advocating for a more holistic approach.
The Concept of “The Body Keeps the Score”
One of the most influential contributions of Dr. van der Kolk is the concept that “the body keeps the score.” This idea posits that traumatic experiences are not just stored as memories in the mind but are also embedded in the body’s physiological responses. Traumatic events can lead to changes in brain function, stress hormone regulation, and the nervous system, which manifest in physical symptoms and behavioral patterns.
By emphasizing the body-mind connection, Dr. van der Kolk has urged psychodynamic therapists to incorporate somatic awareness and interventions into their practice. This approach recognizes that addressing trauma solely through talk therapy may not be sufficient for healing, as the body itself holds crucial information about the individual’s experiences and needs.
The Integration of Somatic Therapies
Dr. van der Kolk’s work has led to the integration of somatic therapies within psychodynamic frameworks. Techniques such as Sensorimotor Psychotherapy, Somatic Experiencing, and EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing) have gained prominence as effective methods for treating trauma. These approaches focus on helping individuals become more attuned to their bodily sensations, release stored tension, and process traumatic memories in a way that promotes healing.
Sensorimotor Psychotherapy
Developed by Pat Ogden, Sensorimotor Psychotherapy combines principles of psychodynamic therapy with somatic techniques to address the physical and emotional effects of trauma. Dr. van der Kolk’s work has validated the importance of this approach, highlighting how incorporating body awareness can enhance the therapeutic process and lead to more comprehensive healing.
Somatic Experiencing
Somatic Experiencing, developed by Peter Levine, focuses on releasing the physical tension and energy associated with trauma. Dr. van der Kolk’s research has shown that trauma can become trapped in the body, leading to chronic stress and other health issues. By addressing these physical manifestations, Somatic Experiencing helps individuals restore balance and resilience.
EMDR
EMDR is a therapeutic approach that uses bilateral stimulation, such as eye movements, to help individuals process and integrate traumatic memories. Dr. van der Kolk’s endorsement of EMDR has contributed to its widespread acceptance and use in psychodynamic therapy. EMDR’s effectiveness in reducing the distress associated with trauma highlights the importance of incorporating neurobiological interventions into the therapeutic process.
Neurobiological Insights
Dr. van der Kolk’s work has also emphasized the importance of understanding the neurobiological underpinnings of trauma. His research has revealed how traumatic experiences can alter brain structures and functions, affecting areas such as the amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex. These changes can result in heightened anxiety, emotional dysregulation, and difficulties with memory and concentration.
By integrating neurobiological insights, psychodynamic therapists can better understand the complex ways in which trauma impacts their clients. This knowledge allows for more targeted and effective interventions, as therapists can address both the psychological and physiological aspects of trauma.
The Role of Attachment and Relationships
Dr. van der Kolk’s work has also underscored the importance of attachment and relationships in the healing process. He has highlighted how trauma can disrupt an individual’s ability to form healthy connections with others, leading to isolation and further psychological distress. By recognizing the significance of secure attachment and supportive relationships, psychodynamic therapists can help clients rebuild trust and foster meaningful connections.
Restoring a Sense of Safety
One of the key aspects of Dr. van der Kolk’s approach is the emphasis on restoring a sense of safety for trauma survivors. He advocates for creating a therapeutic environment where clients feel understood, validated, and supported. This safe space allows individuals to explore their traumatic experiences without fear of judgment, facilitating the healing process.
Enhancing Emotional Regulation
Trauma often disrupts an individual’s ability to regulate their emotions, leading to intense and overwhelming feelings. Dr. van der Kolk’s work has highlighted the importance of helping clients develop skills for emotional regulation. Techniques such as mindfulness, grounding exercises, and body-based interventions can assist individuals in managing their emotions more effectively.
Building Resilience and Empowerment
Dr. van der Kolk’s contributions to psychodynamic therapy extend beyond the treatment of trauma. His work has also emphasized the importance of building resilience and empowerment in clients. By addressing the impact of trauma on the body and mind, therapists can help individuals regain a sense of control and agency in their lives.
Fostering Self-Compassion
Dr. van der Kolk stresses the importance of self-compassion in the healing process. Trauma survivors often struggle with feelings of shame and self-blame. By fostering self-compassion, therapists can help clients develop a more compassionate and forgiving relationship with themselves, promoting healing and growth.
Encouraging Post-Traumatic Growth
Dr. van der Kolk’s work also acknowledges the potential for post-traumatic growth—the positive changes that can arise from the struggle with trauma. By helping clients recognize their strengths and resilience, therapists can support them in finding meaning and purpose in their experiences.
Conclusion
Dr. Bessel van der Kolk’s contributions to the field of psychodynamic therapy have been transformative. His emphasis on the body-mind connection, the integration of somatic therapies, and the importance of neurobiological insights have expanded our understanding of trauma and its treatment. By highlighting the significance of attachment, emotional regulation, and resilience, Dr. van der Kolk has provided a comprehensive framework for addressing trauma and promoting healing. His work continues to inspire and guide psychodynamic therapists in their efforts to support trauma survivors on their journey toward recovery and growth.
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Back to Jim’s story
I ended up in therapy, at the age of 22 years, because my life was subjected to cruel treatment by somebody acting from their death-urge (or destruction-urge) ! I was not strong enough to withstand their destructive influence, because…
- I had been weakened by my family of origin (which denied me the right to be self-protectively angry!)
- and my ‘outsider’ status during my school days.
- And I was malnourished, so therefore physically/psychologically weak; and my gut bacteria was imbalanced because of antibiotics given during three surgeries in the first six years of my life.
But after therapy, I was strongest at the ‘broken point’! (See Metal Dog – Long Road Home! which is my fictionalized autobiography.
Freud, Ellis and Plato
Somewhere in the period 2007-2009, I made good use of Freud’s theory of the three mental agencies – the It (or baby before socialization); the Ego (or emergent personality [or ‘self’] after [some] socialization); and the Super-ego (which is the internalized mother/other; internalized through socialization processes). I used this model to evaluate the components of the ABC model from Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT); and this helped me to justify rejecting the simple ABC model; and to produce a more complex ABC model. (See my book, A Major Critique of REBT.***)
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And later I used it as a comparator for evaluating Plato’s model of the Charioteer and the Two Horses. This occurred in my book on models of mind for counsellors:
Title: A counsellor reflects upon models of mind
Integrating the psychological models of Plato, Freud, Berne and Ellis
By Dr Jim Byrne
Every counsellor needs to think long and hard about their perceptions of their clients. Are they based on ‘common sense’, or have they been subjected to the discipline of considering the theories of great minds that preceded us, like Plato, Freud, Berne and Ellis. (Ellis, of course, oversimplified the SOR model of mind into the simple ABC model, but he is still important because of his impact on the whole CBT theory, which currently dominates the field of counselling and therapy in the US, UK and elsewhere).
Paperback and eBook versions available
Learn more.***
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And the Freudian model of mind also helped in the development of another of my books, which is this one:
The Emergent Social Individual:
Or how social experience shapes the human body-brain-mind
By Dr Jim Byrne
Copyright © Jim Byrne, 2009-2019
The E-CENT perspective sees the relationship of mother-baby as a dialectical (or interactional) one of mutual influence, in which the baby is ‘colonized’ by the mother/carer, and enrolled over time into the mother/carer’s culture, including language and beliefs, scripts, stories, etc. This dialectic is one between the innate urges of the baby and the cultural and innate and culturally shaped behaviours of the mother. The overlap between mother and baby gives rise to the ‘ego space’ in which the identity and habits of the baby take shape. And in that ego space, a self-identity appears as an emergent phenomenon, based on our felt sense of being a body (the core self) and also on our conscious and non-conscious stories about who we are and where we have been, who has related to us, and how: (the autobiographical self).
Learn more about this book.***
E-Book version only available at the moment.***
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Today, the Freudian approach has become less significant, especially since Allan Schore developed his ‘affect regulation theory’; and Daniel Siegel developed ‘interpersonal neurobiology’ (IPNB). And also since I (with the help of Renata Taylor-Byrne) developed Emotive-Cognitive Embodied Narrative Therapy (E-CENT). Please see my two introductory books on E-CENT here:
Holistic Counselling in Practice.***
Lifestyle Counselling and Coaching for the Whole Person.***
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Postscript
So, Allan Schore and Daniel Siegel have failed to notice the primary importance of the body, and thus of everything that affects the body for good or ill; including diet/ nutrition; sleep; physical exercise; tension/ relaxation; and so on.
That role fell to me and my wife and professional partner, Renata Taylor-Byrne. We have done a lot of work on integrating diet, exercise and sleep into talk therapy. See the following sources:
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Lifestyle Counselling and Coaching for the Whole Person:
Or how to integrate nutritional insights, exercise and sleep coaching into talk therapy.
By Dr Jim Byrne, with Renata Taylor-Byrne
Because diet, exercise and sleep are increasingly seen to be important determinants of mental health and emotional well-being, it is now necessary to rethink our models of counselling and therapy. This book will show counsellors how to incorporate lifestyle coaching and counselling into their system of talk therapy. It will also help self-help enthusiasts to take better care of their own mental and physical health, and emotional well-being.
Prices: from £4.26 GBP (Kindle) to £12.64 (paperback)
Paperback and eBook versions.
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Learn more.***
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You are what you eat (among other things). Feel better by eating better!
How to control Your anger, anxiety and depression: Using nutrition and physical activity
Nutritional deficiencies lead to emotional disorders –and well as physical diseases. But this book’s focus is on the link to mental health and emotional wellbeing.
This book will teach you about the links and how to avoid the negative effects.
The authors also present detailed guidance about how to change your eating and exercising habits, successfully, and without a lot of pain. Change your diet and exercise approach, and watch the negative emotions drop out of your life…
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How to Stop Wrecking Your Mental, Physical and Emotional Health:
Answers from the science of sleep
By Renata Taylor-Byrne
This book addresses many important questions about sleep, including the following:
Why should we be concerned about the quantity of hours slept? (Including the physical and mental diseases linked to inadequate sleep).
Why should we be committed to getting high quality, undisturbed sleep? (The physical and mental health benefits).
What causes common sleep problems? And:
How to fix common sleep problems, like insomnia. (This includes looking at foods that promote sleep; and foods that destroy sleep. Plus how to manage your lifestyle in general to promote healthy sleep – which, in turn, gives you a healthy life. And also how to manage your mind, and your sleep environment, to reap the great rewards of regular, nourishing and regenerating sleep experiences).
…For more information about this book, please click this link: Sleep science and your health.***
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Postscript 2:
If you want to develop your own rich and flexible model of counselling and therapy, it’s a good idea to study most of the mainstream systems and theories, as sources of creative inspiration for yourself. But don’t forget that the human body is an emotional entity from birth; and the emotional-body, as socially shaped, is what walks into the counselling or therapy room to seek your help! It’s not just a right-brain and a left-brain. The body has stored up the history of the client’s journey through a troubled and unequal world of harsh challenges. (See in particular, Stephen Porges’ Polyvagal Theory; and Bessel van der Kolk’s The Body Keeps the Score.)
That’s all for now.
Best wishes,
Jim
Dr Jim Byrne, Doctor of Counselling
Author, Counsellor and Psychotherapist
https://abc-bookstore.com
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https://abc-counselling.org
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https://ecent-institute.org
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I love books; and I’ve enjoyed scouring bookshops for new ideas since I was about 14 years old. It is perhaps one of the greatest deprivations of the Covid-19 lockdown that I cannot get to walk around the philosophy, psychology, health and self-help sections of Waterstones, in Leeds or Manchester; or the Bookcase in Hebden Bridge; or W.H. Smith’s in Halifax; or the Bookcase store in Piece Hall.
But, actually, it was the original version I had in my hands; the one with the bnlue cover, and the coloured illustrations – and my eyes were drawn to three illustrations, on pages vi and vii of the Foreword.
Cutting through the Worry Knot!
Jim
I have frequently found that senior REBT theorists, like Albert Ellis and Michael Edelstein, do not seem to be able to string a valid argument together!
(Subsequently, that book was slightly updated, and reissued with the title, 
However, the Conclusion does not follow logically from those two true premises, because you have smuggled the word *feel* into the conclusion, whereas it does not appear in either of the premises! (It has to be in at least one of the premises to get into the conclusion, validly). Therefore, this argument is invalid, and it falls!
Premise 1. Particular forms of self-talk help to calm our emotions.
In the summary of A Major Critique of REBT, I introduce the concept of ‘perfinking’ – which is shorthand for perceiving/ feeling/ thinking, which seems to me, based on modern neuroscience research, to be what humans do – not discrete thinking, or discrete feeling, or discrete perceiving.
My REBT book, and also my 
One of the books that I have tried to promote for a number of years is ‘The Spirit Level’, by Kate Pickett and Richard Wilkinson. (See the Guardian article by Dawn Foster: 
Our only novel is 
In this book, Dr Jim Byrne, the creator of Emotive-Cognitive Embodied Narrative Therapy (E-CENT) has utilized his own system of narrative therapy to revise his original, non-conscious ‘personal mythology’, or ‘story of self’. – According to the author, humans live inside of stories, and their lives are dominated and directed by those stories, or personal mythologies. It is impossible to ‘forget’ those mythologies, those scripts for a life pattern in the present and future. It is impossible to simply step out of them. The only hope for humans who have been distorted by their childhood and early life experiences is to dig up their personal narratives, to examine and digest them, to revise them, and to create a new, consciously chosen personal mythology which can support a happy and successful future for them. In this book, Dr Byrne demonstrates how to do that digging and digesting and rewriting tasks, by showing us how he healed his own traumatized body-mind, and his broken heart.
E-CENT Publications does not currently have any books on minority issues. The main books that seem to attract female buyers are:
Over the years that I’ve been providing counselling and therapy services to individuals and couples, I have had to keep broadening my understanding of the nature of human beings.
Eventually, Renata, my wife and professional partner, did some research on the role of diet and exercise in the experience of anger, anxiety and depression; and we collaborated on a book in which we put her research, and my stress and anxiety diet, together; plus some work we’d jointly done on exercise.
ABC Bookstore Online UK 